Women Role in Environmental Conservation and Development in Nigeria - Juniper publishers
Juniper Publishers - Open Access Journal of Ecology
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that one in four women worldwide or about 620 million women rate their lives positively enough to be considered ‘thriving’ and have shown that women in Nigeria play a crucial role due to their active involvement in conservation activities and management of the environment. However, they are viewed as insignificant partners and not accorded due attention and many women-related economic and social activities depend on environmental resources. Yet, women are denied access to effective and sustainable use of forest resources, and they have limited or no control over land, capital and labour. Women therefore suffer numerous limitations accordingly. As a result of widespread mistreatment and overt discrimination in all dimensions of women lives, women lack significant autonomy. The central preoccupation of this review is to explore the key role of women in environmental conservation and discuss the current challenges and opportunities for the future. Equipped with the right tools, the massive and growing generation of women in Africa, particularly, Nigeria has the potential to drive development, achieve global goals and transform the continent’s future along with their own.” It is therefore recommended that for sustainable development to take its roots, access and ownership of natural resources should be enhanced for all gender particularly women, people living with disabilities, marginalized and minority groups. Unless women efforts are recognised, we might likely be pushing towards planetary limits and without vibrant women movement, the Sustainable Development Goals are dead in the water thereby, leading to the brink of a global disaster.
Keywords: Gender; Women-related economic and social activities; Environmental resources; Conservation activities; Planetary limits; Global goals; Brink of a global disaster; Sustainable development
Introduction
In the eyes of the general public the conservationist is too often pictured as an antisocial person who is against any kind of development. What the real conservationist is against is unplanned development that breaks ecological as well as human laws. The true aim of conservation, then, is in twofold viz: to ensure the preservation of a quality environment that considers aesthetic and recreational as well as product needs and to ensure a continuous yield of useful plants, animals and materials by establishing a balanced cycle of harvest and renewal.
Thus, a no fishing sign on a pond may not be as good conservation as a management plan which allows for removal of several hundred pounds of fish per acre year after year. On the other hand, if the pond provides the water supply for a town, then some constraints on fishing may be the desirable conservation procedure [1]. Interestingly, recent years have seen an appreciable growth in the level of understanding of the dangers facing the environment and the extensive range of environmental problems is now a subject of serious global concern [2]. These include atmospheric, marine pollution, global warming and ozone depletion, the danger of nuclear and other extra-hazardous substances and threatened wildlife species. Remarkably, only 9.8 percent of Nigeria’s total area is under conservation out of which game reserve and national parks form about 3 percent (Figure 1 & 2). Most of the areas under conservation have been extensively encroached upon by other land uses and the wildlife resources have suffered serious depletion as a result of over exploitation and gross abuse. More species are becoming endangered daily and the habitats of wildlife continue to dwindle [3].
For
indigenous women, the earth is intimately connected with their indigenous
culture and it is symbolized as “Mother” because it offers its inhabitants all
the resources necessary for their existence and survival. Mother Earth provides
forests, rivers and a diverse range of flora and fauna, many of which are
useful for medical or technological purposes, contributing to a better quality
of life. For this reason, indigenous women feel a tremendous respect for their
Mother Earth, and they try to live harmoniously with nature as an intrinsic
part of their being. Lies from Western cultures, combined with the imposition
of foreign ideas, our concepts and viewpoints about the true significance of
the richness of the earth’s natural resources went through a process of change.
During this process, the belief was formed that these gifts from Mother Earth
were limited. Indigenous women were also led to believe that they were an
impediment to the development of civilization, and an obstacle to the
activities of economic advancement of a country. At the base of this
development concept there came the introduction of inappropriate technologies
that irresponsibly exploited the land and marine resources, damaging Mother
Earth, as well as plundering indigenous people territories. If the indigenous
women, have resisted and survived in these tropical jungles until the dawning
of the 21st century, this is due to their relationship with and their respect
for Mother Earth. Nevertheless, when the conservation of nature and its
diverseness is debated, the territorial rights of indigenous women are often
forgotten, or if they are recognized they are treated as a ghost, considered a
secondary priority. The deterioration of Mother Earth is equivalent to the
crisis of global cultural diversity. Indigenous women live in areas of high
biodiversity and are confronted as well by many threats against their
territorial, cultural and spiritual possessions, and in some areas their very
lives are threatened. Women long experience with nature and outside
exploitation has been interpreted by and incorporated into our social, economic
and political systems, in order to define the territorial limits of our natural
resources, and to ensure our existence and future development of new
generations of indigenous women [4].
Schematically, appreciating the importance of rural
women in conservation activities is essential to rural development planning. In
many countries and indeed in Nigeria, the role of women in conservation
activities is a helper and not an important economic contributor. Women
participating in the development of local and national markets are
under-represented in data. Not only do the numbers show us that women are not
participating in society at the same rate as men, they are often left out of
data considerations in the first place. Even the way that data is collected
shows a gender gap. Globally, only 29% of researchers are women and data allow
us to see women (www.unesco.org). That might seem like an odd statement despite
we see women daily. They make up about half of our global population and if
women aren’t counted and aren’t accounted for in the data, then policy
recommendations will be made without women’s consideration (www.unesco.org).
Yet, women have use conservation invention for social good and they intensively
participate in conservation activities, in addition to their domestic and
reproductive functions [5]. Women make up the highest percentage of workforce
in the agricultural sector, but do not have opportunity to own or control land
and productive resources (Saquina, 2013). However; factors militating against
women in their involvement in conservation are numerous, ranging from
socio-cultural to economic, as well as changing from area to area. The greatest
percentage of rural women all over the world continue to be confronted with
poor health and work conditions, limited access to education and low income. In
addition, the lack of recognition and appreciation of the significant role of
rural women in conservation activities is a drawback that gives rise to lack of
specific policies, which are misdirected and thus increase poverty, illiteracy
and non-involvement in the design and planning of programs and policies
(Saquina, 2013). Women are moving around these obstacles by creating their own spaces and
networks to help one another thrive. Women in the Digital Ecosystem (WiDE) is
one such community, promoting the inclusion of women in the digital economy
ensuring the future is Female.
According to Verveer, (2011)
research also indicates that women are more likely to use their earnings or
incomes to improve the life standard of their families and communities than
men. Beraki, (2009, cited in Abdulahi et al. 2012) asserts that, women
frequently endeavour to protect their households, adopting numerous actions,
patterns, strategies and mechanisms in the face of shocks and stresses that
adversely affects the livelihood of the family. Bryson (1981, cited in Doss,
1999) states that women’s role in conservation activities backed by past
development but that the failure to accord recognition to enhance their
activities is contributing to recent problems particularly, in Sub Saharan
Africa. Recognizing that women are prominent in conservation but are accorded
little or no opportunity to make necessary contributions to development
policies; this study is necessary to elucidate a potential opportunity to
improve the lives of rural people by showing the unique circumstances and key
position of women as well as their problems and needs that will form a bases of
a proper development programme.
Sustainable
Development and Conservation in Nigeria
Man, without basic comforts is an animal; without assurance of his
survival, he is a beast. Remove material poverty you will find a fertile soil
for refinement. There is a popular sticker that adorns many cars in Nigerian
roads. It reads; “Givers never lack” reversing it you get “Lackers never Give”.
The necessities of life must no longer be taken for granted. The first symptoms
of the environmental crisis predicted by some ecologists may be emerging at
this moment. These symptoms are reflected in the growing frequency and
magnitude of resources shortage. The quality of life for many of us is now
being challenged by real shortages in water, food, forest, minerals and energy.
Can man, through science and technology, meet up these challenges and continue
to supply these necessities of life? Or will he face ever-increasing shortages
with a consequent lowering of the quality of life? What is known about the
present levels of resources consumption? Can we meet projected future demands
for these essential resources?
Nigeria has a total area of
approximately 923,775km2 or
92.4 million hectares and a coastline, which is about 960km long. The country
is well endowed with vast and varied natural resources, which is a function of
its large geographical resources, extent and the diversity of its natural
environment. The geographical location of the country and its shape and large
size allows it to experience nearly all the different types of weather and
climate found in the West Africa sub-region. The vegetation varies regionally
in consonance with the climatic pattern. Thus, ecologically, the Nigerian
landscape encompasses the mangrove swamps and freshwater swamp forests of the
Equatorial region, the moist tropical lowland forest and savanna communities
including their montane and sub-montane varieties and scrub lands,
characteristic of the semi and Sahel zone.
it is evident that the distribution of Nigerian land shows that
nearly one third of Nigeria is covered by shrub/ woodland/thicket while 48.35%
of the country is covered by grassland, shrub, woodland/thicket. These two land
types support Nigeria’s grazing economy. Forestland made up of well-drained
(dry) land which makes up 5.54% while forested wetlands cover 4.23% of Nigeria
surface area. All forestland in Nigeria covers 9.91% or almost 10% of the area.
The whole farmland area covers 40.59% of Nigeria, showing that only 60% of the
farm is intensively farmland. Tropical rainforests are being destroyed at an
alarming rate, notwithstanding their benefits. According to F.A.O estimates the
tropical moist evergreen forest is being destroyed at the rate of 11 million
hectares a day [1]. Hence, the rate of destruction of tropical rainforests is
higher than its rate of regeneration.
Nigeria is underlain by two major groups of rocks namely
crystalline igneous, metamorphic and old sedimentary rocks of the pre-cambrian
basement complex and sedimentary formations of marine, alluvial and continental
origins, dating from the cretaceous to the present. The two rock groups are
both characterized by a wide variety of valuable mineral occurrences whose
potentials for development are only just being realized. These is a wide
variety of lithological rock types which, in turn have given rise to a wide
variety of soil types. The Nigerian terrain is quite varied but except perhaps,
in a few areas of rugged hills or extreme water logging (Figure 1 & 2), it
does not constitute a major constraint to man’s social and economic activities.
In fact, the hilly terrains and the poorly drained coastal areas, river flood
plains and topographic depressions also have their own unique uses, so that
they add to rather than diminish the resources endowment of the country.
Nigeria
is well endowed with abundant natural resources, which if properly harnessed
and managed can sustain her rapid social and economic development. The need to
conserve and plan for the rational development of these resources are more
pressing now than ever before because of certain reason:
a) The
rapidly increasingly population now estimated about 205 million people (Raimi
et al. 2018) and the increasing affluence tendencies among the people especially
in the burgeoning urban centres are making great demands on the country’s
resources.
b) The
re-orientation of our economic development strategy which began in the
mid-1970s meant placing greater reliance on our own internal resources to
promote social and economic development within the country, a situation that
has been consolidated more recently with the policy on the local sourcing of
industrial raw materials.
c) The
emphasis on rural development and small-scale rural producers based on the belief
that development is essentially a human issue concerned with mobilizing
communities and the whole society to engage in the task of self-improvement
with the available local resources.
d) The
increasing disharmony between man and nature in several parts of Nigeria as
evidenced by the recurrent drought episodes, accelerated gully erosion, oil
pollution, proliferation of aquatic weeds, spread of epidemic diseases, crop
pest infestations, urban floods, flash floods and dam burst in rural area etc.
It was perfectly understandable when the Federal Military Government
established the Natural Resources Conservation Council by the Decree 50 (Act
50) of 1989. One of the functions of this council was to formulate a National
policy for natural resources conservation which must be based on a full
appreciation of the variety of natural resources available; their quantities,
occurrences and distribution, their intrinsic characteristics and dynamics; the
present state of their development and utilization, the management practices
and associated problems.
Gender Issues
in Conservation
The feminist movement in the 1970s and 1980s in the
North created an awakening of gender issues in developing countries, although
in most cases developments are proceeding very differently than they did in the
North. There are few demonstrations or court cases related to women’s rights in
developing countries. Rather, women in more conservative countries are
beginning to examine their role and place in society with more open eyes, and
customary gender relationships are being questioned. Northern researchers and
development assistance workers are also influencing attitudes and beliefs
through the publication of studies and by interventions that put emphasis on
women and families. Studies have produced findings that run counter to many
preconceived notions about female contributions to household economics and
natural resources conservation involvement. In fact, it appears that in most
rural communities, women are at least as important than men in contributing
labour, products and income to the family. Although women often spend the most
time utilizing natural resources, and they are the ones most affected by land
degradation, they have little formal say in making decisions about conservation
and management questions. Many say this must change if sustainability is to be
achieved.
However, western ignorance of the relevance of women in
conservation activities and management continue to contribute to the
extraordinarily weak performance of rural development interventions among the
poor majority in the world. While it is not the only cause of failure, other
causes include generally impoverished understanding of the political ecologies
of conservation, the paucity of appropriate technical packages, and the
often-destructive policies of governments and donor organisations [3], it is
certainly among the most salient. A gender sensitive approach to conservation
is perhaps even more critical today than it was in 1980, whether or not
conservation in general have continued to deteriorate, it is beyond question
that the economic well-being of rural women has worsened markedly and the great
brunt of that worsening is being borne by women, children and the elderly. Of
these, women’s participation in conservation activities have had paradoxical
consequences for women regarding their familial relations, gender identity,
workload and status. Shifts in household size and structure of authority,
network support and marriage patterns, lead to status deterioration for most
women [1].
Physical isolation and nuclearization of families have undermined
the social bases for women’s collaboration, pressed by the need for cash, women
are confronted with increasing workloads exactly when the institutional bases
for exchanges of service and assistance are being withdrawn and when the ideals
of housewifely duties and dexterous performance of feminine domestic chores are
gradually gaining prominence as a source of self-esteem among rural women.
Remarkably, discrimination against women is related not only to legal measures
favouring men but is also rooted in indigenous interpretations of customary
rights to land and its products. Women may resist by forming spontaneous
collective action groups to counter discrimination and male exclusivity. Under
both colonial and national governments, gender discriminatory land-tenue laws
increased the intra-household struggle between men and women over access to
resources. Using familial kinship idioms, men interpreted to their own benefit
various state laws that legitimated individuation of land ownership, without
commensurately remunerating women’s labour [7].
The Women in
Development Concept
Women in Development (WID) concept is centred on theories of
modernization and liberal feminism that evolved into a perspective that aimed
to integrate women in the development process. The WID-perspective continued to
exist within the modernization paradigm, with the focus or intention to develop
countries through the adaptation of Western technologies, institution and
values [8]. The perspective emphasized on equal opportunities for women, which
originated in a liberal perspective on feminism [9]. Liberal feminism, rooted
in the tradition of 16th and 17th century liberal philosophy, centred on the
ideals and principles of equal rights and liberty. The liberal conception of
equality was hinged on the belief that all men had the potential to be rational
and that any inequality had to be justified in rational terms. The liberal
conception of liberty meant that people were governed only with their consent
and only within certain limits, generally defined in terms of the public and
private spheres (the former government can regulate; the latter, it cannot).
The debate on the dividing line between the two spheres is continuous though
with a consensus that the line must be drawn to preserve liberty [9]. According
to the first Western feminist theorist, Mary Wollstonecraft (1792, cited in
[9]) women’s ability to reason was at par with that of men and that male and
female biological differences were not important as regards the granting of
political rights. She averred that why women appeared to be intellectually
inferior was due to their low-level education and, therefore, was due to
inequality, rather than a justification for it [9].
Twentieth-century
liberal feminists have also used this difference between biological facts and
social norms, when they drew the difference between sex (biological) and gender
(historical, social, and cultural) differences between women and men. Liberal
feminists see women’s subordination as resulting from gendered norms, rather
than from biological sex, and aim to change these norms. Liberal feminists argue
that the inequality of women and men cannot be justified on rational terms and
trust that rational men can be convinced of the folly of perpetuating that
inequality. Liberal feminists focus on equal opportunities for women and men.
Their propagation that women should be treated equally in terms of education
and in the application of the law has triggered global campaigns for women’s
voting and property rights [9]. Policies were suggesting the abrogation of
discriminatory actions in institutions or the formation of alternative
institutions that are pro women [8].
The liberal feminist approach
has been very significant globally and was critical in establishing the
language of political strategy utilized by WID advocates [10]. The core
thinking of feminism was the idea that women’s disadvantages emanated from
stereotyped customary expectations held by men and internalized by women and
promoted through various agencies of socialization. It postulated that women’s
disadvantages can, in principle, be eliminated by breaking down these
stereotypes: for example, by giving girls better training and more varied role
models, by introducing equal opportunity programmes and anti-discrimination
legislation, or by freeing labour markets (Connell, 1987) [10]. This approach
did not focus on men or gender relations.
Modernization theory started in the 1930s, with the early
development initiatives of colonial rulers and economists and gained momentum
in the post-war and postcolonial periods. Western development planners began to
theorize in the 1950s about how to promote development in the newly independent
countries and came up with projects to modernize less-developed countries all
over the globe. Modernization aimed to turn these economies and societies into
images of the industrialized, high mass-consumption, democratic societies of
the Western world. Obstacles to growth were identified in traditional cultural
practices and values, as well as in social and economic infrastructures.
Observable, cultural, economic, and political divergence from the model
provided by the West was enough to identify a country and its institutions and
practices as pre-modern” and in need of immediate change.
The Women in
Development Framework
The framework was advanced or developed with the sole purpose to
advance development in developing countries. However, its subordination
concerns remained central to the women’s movement in many northern countries.
WID had the primary motive to improving the status of women by given attention
to their roles and integrating them into the economy. The essence is also to
enhance the productive roles and capacity of women. The origin of women’s
subordination was linked to their exclusion from the marketplace. It was
therefore argued that if women were given the opportunity to be actively
involved in productive sphere, they will no doubt, contribute meaningfully to
development. By implication, they will make positive development contribution
and advance their status in relation to the status of men [10]. WID refused to
accept the restrictive and narrow view of women’s roles (as mothers and wives)
surrounding most of development policy in relation to women. Rather than
referring to women as mere needy beneficiaries, WID assertions push forward
arguments that properly portray women as inspiring and productive in societal
scheme of things. No longer, therefore, should women be considered as inactive
recipients of welfare-oriented programmes but rather as active participants and
contributors to the enhancement of society economically. This Implies that
women contribute to the economic development of countries. Women can therefore
be regarded as a missing link in developmental actions and activities, a hitherto
less valued economic resource in the development chain (Tinker, 1990) [10]. The
WID approach had gone through changes all through the 1970s and the 1980s.
There had been a shift in focus from the aspect of Equity to Anti-poverty, and,
then to Efficiency approaches in the pursuit of women development.
The Equity
Approach
The equity approach emanated from the United States of America. It
is considered as the original WID approach. The WID approach became pronounced
after its introduction by the WID movement. Its popularity became widespread
during the United Nations Decade for Women. Its basic assumption is that women
are impacted negatively by economic growth. The approach thus calls for or
solicits for equitable distribution of the proceeds of development. That is
ensuring that both men and women share such developmental benefits equally. The
approach also pushes for proper integration of women in the developmental
scheme of things by means of having marketplace and employment opportunities.
It is pertinent to note that the equity approach extends beyond economic
inequality as it addresses women subordination even at the level of households
and at the open market. The approach also focuses on ensuring equity between
men and women by addressing the issue of inequality between the sexes in
private and public domains respectively and along the line of socio-economic
groupings [11].
In order
to solve the problem of inequalities between the sexes, women and men, the
equity approach requests for the intervention of the state in ensuring that
autonomy was obtained for women. They sought for top-down kind of intervention
that will be inclusive of both political and economic autonomy. They referred
to the approach as top-down. [11] explains the resistance launched against the
equity approach regarding its ability to solve the problem of resource
redistribution in terms of taking from men to give to women for equity and also
to swing the pendulum of power so that men and women will hold power equally to
prevent the subordination of women. The approach tackles the existing
inequality that keeps men and women on separate platforms. The approach
identifies a strategic need for women to be treated equally both economically
and politically and, to be seen from the perspective of both reproductive and
productive roles. A major shortfall of this approach is that it stands as a
threat to the dominion of men and thus looks difficult to implement. It thus
was diluted to make it more appealing to accept and implement [11].
The
Anti-Poverty Approach
The
anti-poverty approach is a much milder WID approach compared to the equity
approach because the emphasis is on income equality reduction between men and
women rather than reducing inequality between men and women. The anti-poverty
approach became pronounced in the early 1970 (Moser, 1993). Its emphasis is on
women that have low income with the intent of reducing poverty. According to
Buvinic (1983) [10], the emphasis on low income women who are considered made
the approach appealing to bureaucrats and those who are responsible for the
implementation of policies. This is because of the less threatening tone of the
advocacy. The implication of this is the emergence of two conflicting
anti-poverty strategies since the direct poverty reduction was based on
maximizing GNP [10].
Strategy one was to increase the income of people by
the provision of employment and, by increasing the income of poor and insolvent
workers. Strategy two known as basic needs’ strategy entails that the whole
essence of development was to meet or fulfill the basic human needs which are
basically food, clothing and shelter including social needs such as human
right, education and political participation and involvement. [10]. In the 1970s,
there was widespread adaptation of the anti-poverty approach by various
internationally established agencies and countries. Examples of such are World
Bank and International Labour Organisation (ILO) [10]. The implementation of
the anti-poverty approach was basically to fulfil the aspiration to surge
women’s employment. That informed why the concentration was on programmes that
were meant to increase the employment of women and to cause revenue generation
(i.e. skill training) as well as creating accessibility to productive resources
(i.e. credit) (Buvinic, 1986) [11].
The
Efficiency Approach
This approach came to light during the 1980s. The approach is
still widely relevant till date. Its emergence came at a period the world was
embracing neo-classical economic model. The nexus of the model is centered on
the point that the world has an amount of resources and that the said resources
with the use of economics tool be rationally allocated. This implies that
existing resources which are scarce are allocated in such a manner that will be
of interest to the economy. People exhibit rational behaviour whiles this model
is applied. It follows the use of cost benefit calculus to maximize personal
interests. One prominent feature of this approach is the compulsive best
interest attitude that people exhibit resulting in the most efficient utilization
of available resources in the economy. Supply and demand hold sway because it
determines the allocation of resources which takes place through markets.
Markets are very fundamental in this regard because it guarantees an economy
that is self-equilibrating. It causes economies to have sustainable growth that
is of long run. Based on the positive traits of the free market, it is averred
that government should only intervene in the advent of an imperfect market
(Sparr, 1994) [11].
This approach which emanated from the neo-classical economic model
considers women as assets that are underused or abandoned in relation to
development. Thus, the essence of this approach is to cause the efficiency and
effectiveness of development through the contribution of women. The core
assumption is that higher economic participation amounts to increased equity.
The efficiency approach emphasizes economic growth and sees women as input
factor in relation to the economy.
Theory of
Public Participation
Public participation is a process that accords individuals the
opportunity to influence public decisions in given societies. These individuals
are particularly private individuals that influence public decisions. It was
created in the mid-1960s. President Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society Programmes
was the originator (Cogan & Sharpe, 1986) [12]. The participation theory
has its root from political sciences and development theory. The fact that the
poor people in the society are often not taken into consideration on
developmental issues triggered the creation of the participation approach. It
came to be since the poor are often alienated from decision making processes,
including implementation and attendant benefits. This background root of the
approach makes it important as it advocates for the inclusion of the poor in
developmental processes just as the others in the society are equally being
planned [13]. Public participation is now a part of development process from
the 2000s. The problem is how well the process is handled being certain of its
benefit to decision making, the generality of the public as well as the
practice of inclusion in development [14]. The words Public and Citizen
Involvement and Participation are often used alternatively. They have a common
reference to a process which allows private individuals to influence public
policy decision. Their explanation of the process is basically vague though
with meanings (Mize, 1972) [12]. The word citizen excludes those with no formal
or proper citizenship status. Imperatively, public participation requires
legitimacy and quality. This, however, depends on the process designed.
Legitimacy of the process is based on how adequate participation and
objectivity of the process is handled. Also noteworthy is the policy efficiency
[14]. Examples of participation are town hall meetings, or public hearings etc.
The aim is to ensure that policies are made in manners that will be of utmost
benefit to the generality of the public considering the divergence and
uniqueness of the populace for whom the policies are made. Policies should be
well planned. The best possible outcomes should be considered and implemented
to enhance developmental goals.
Environmental
Movements lead by Women around the World
Green
Belt movement
This
movement is one of the biggest in women and environment history. Nobel Prize
winner Wangari Maathai founded this movement on the World Environment Day in
June 1977, involving 80,000 women in planting of trees. The Green Belt movement
aims to bring environmental restoration along with society’s economic growth.
This movement led by Maathai focused on restoration of Kenya’s rapidly
diminishing forests as well as empowering the rural women through environmental
preservation.
Kenyan
land takeover
In Kenya,
starting in the mid-1980s, women protested the elites and big foreign
corporations who were coerced and controlling the production of the land.
Rather than allowing food to be grown for survival, women were pressured by
both their husbands and the government to cultivate coffee for foreign profit.
The protests continued and gained strength over the next couple of decades. The
protests eventually ended in a Kenyan power shift enforcing democratic national
elections, which resulted in the redistribution of land.
Women
Concern for Nature around the World
Women around the world play a
key role in the protection of biological diversity. They have recognized the
need not only to protect the biodiversity, but also to reshape and recreate it.
Rachel
Carson
One of the outstanding women environmentalists is Rachel Carson.
Rachel Carson (1907-1964) was a scientist, writer, and ecologist. Rachel Carson
wrote the now-famous Silent Spring, an expose on the misinformation spread by
the chemical industry and the use of synthetic pesticides, specifically DDT.
This book spurred the environmental revolution. The overall theme of the book
is the commanding- and overwhelmingly negative effect that humans have on the
natural world. Carson’s legacy led to the creation of the Environmental
Protection Agency in the United States under the Nixon administration and
started the conversation regarding the human impact on the environment.
Wangari
Maathai
Wangari Maathai worked tirelessly for both land conservation and
women’s rights. She was the founder of the Green Belt movement, which focused
on environmental conservation and women’s rights, in her native country of
Kenya. In addition to being honoured by many world leaders for her efforts, she
was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004 for her approach to sustainable
development, democracy and peace.
Isatou
Ceesay
Isatou Ceesay, dubbed “Queen of Recycling,” is a Gambian activist
who started the recycling movement called One Plastic Bag in the Gambia. Ceesay
works to educate citizens about recycling and reducing the amount of waste that
is created. She founded a project that creates plastic yarn and forms bags out
of the upcycled waste. Not only has her project dramatically reduced the amount
of waste in her village, but it is also employing hundreds of West African
women and providing them with monthly revenue.
May Boeve
May Boeve is co-founder of the website, 350.org, an organization
dedicated to working against climate change by connecting leaders across the
world. The aim of the organization is to reduce the levels of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere to a point where global warming will not be as dangerous as
predicted. Her organization is going straight to the source: the fossil fuel
industry. By limiting the power of the industry, itself, they hope to then
confront the government about limiting carbon dioxide emissions.
Marina
Silva
Marina Silva is a warrior for the Amazon Rainforest in Brazil.
Silva was a colleague of Chico Mendes, who was assassinated for defending the
rainforest in 1988. She and Mendes led demonstrations in the 1980s to protect
the rainforest from government control. After Mendes’ assassination, Silva
became a politician and fought for environmental protection, sustainable
development, and social justice. Deforestation decreased by 59% from 2004 to
2007, during her political career.
India Women
Role in Conservation of Environment
Environmentalists are those who work towards the betterment of our
environment, these are the people who have lobbied for environmental protection
when the common man would rather sleep peacefully and care for his own benefit.
These people have worked for a cause greater than them. By saving the
environment for global commons and have saved and impacted us too. The origin
of the environment protection movement dates back to Kehjrali movement and gain
momentum through Chipko movement, Appiko movement, Save Silent Valley movement
and Narmada Bachao Andolan and the major trend in the environmental protection,
emphasising the fact that environmental movements reflects the trend that most
participants are women, Adivasi’s, and poor people [15,16]. Women and
environment are closely bounded and the intimate relation between women and
nature led to the emergence of theory of ecofeminism, which is a field bridging
ecological ethics and feminism that seeks to explore the conceptual connections
between environmental degradation and sexist oppression [17]. Women through
their role as farmers and collectors of water and fire-woods have a close
connection with their local environment, women and children as well as
marginalised sections are the prime victims of environmental degradation
especially at times of natural disasters [18,19]. Thus, women actively
participate in environmental protection than men as women are directly affected
and influenced by nature than men [20]. Women have been involved in several
governmental & nongovernmental forestry & environment programs.
a) Chipko
movement
b)
Community forestry programs
c) Social
forestry programs
d)
Individual conservation programs
e) SHGs
conservation programs
f)
Green-Belt movement
g) Keep
the city clean programs
h) Green
India clean India programs
The
sustainable use of the environment by women is the result of their closeness to
nature. Most women, especially in rural areas, are involved in household
activities like the collection of food, water, fodder and fuel, which enhance
their knowledge of the environment, thus enabling them to implement the
appropriate conservation practices and technologies. (Ram Pandit & Eddie
Bevilacqua, 2011) Social Heterogeneity and Community Forestry Process). People
in Western countries think they originated the environmental movements without
knowing that the villagers in mostly poor and developing countries initiated
these movements.
Environmental
Movements lead by Indian Women
Bishnoi’s
first environmentalists of India
The direct concern of Indian women with environmental
protection can be traced long back to 1731 A D, The Bishnoi people of Rajasthan
credited for the first use of Chipko tactics against tree felling [21].
Bishnois movement began with the royal order of Maharaja Abhay Singh
to cutting of Khejri trees, worshipped by Bishnois, for construction of
fortress. The villagers under the leadership of Amrita Devi protested the order
as she hugged the tree, as a new form of dissent. Amrita Devi and her three
daughters were beheaded for disobeying royal order. Just before her martyrdom,
Amrita Devi declared, “If a tree is saved even at the cost of one’s head, it’s
worth” [22]. Maharaja stopped order as 363 Bishnois lost their lives in
non-violent method for protection of trees. They are upholding eco-friendly
principles still by saving water by traditional water harvesting system,
indigenous cultivation method for local areas and not killing any animals [23].
Thus, Bishnois movement laid the foundation of environment protection movement
in India. This movement started by Amrita Bai in 1731 A D was revived by Bachni
Devi and Gaura Devi of Uttar Pradesh in 1972. They snatched the axe from the
wood cutters and warned contractors not to cut the trees.
Chipko
movement (1973)
Chipko movement was started in 1973 at Garhwal division of Uttar
Pradesh specially Chamoli District. The protest movement was organised by
Chandi Prasad Bhatt, who aired the slogan of “ecology is permanent economy”.
Chipko movement was led by Sunderlal Bahuguna, Bachi Devi, Gauri Devi and women
of the Garhwali area saved trees by embracing them. Again in 1977 many rural
women saved the Adwani Forest under the leadership of Bachchni Devi. The
movement begin with the government refusal to supply ash tree to the Dasholi
Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM), (workers’ cooperative) for processing plant of
forest produces (especially for making plough) in Chamoli District. Instead government
gave green signal for Simon Company to cut ash trees for production of sporting
goods. The DGSM organised protest government decision to promote Simon Company
instead of villagers. This boosted the Chipko protest. Women formed Mahila
Mandal for the protection of forest as they understand the forest degradation
has more direct impact on their lives. For poor men of the area development
opportunities by the Simon Company are new avenues for reducing the dependence
on women, by woks on hotel, and construction works. But women want to preserve
the status quo and protect environment through forest protection of Garhwali
Hills as it is the question of their survival [24]. The method of tree hugging
protest led by Gauri Devi and Bachi Devi found success against chopping down
the trees. Simon Company stopped cutting of trees. The main slogan of women
was, the forest is our mother’s home, we will defend it with all our might
which prove their eagerness to protect forest [23].
Appiko
movement (1983)
Appiko movement is important environmental conservation movement
in Karnataka, to protect Western Ghats forest. Appikko movement was initiated
by Panduranga Hegde. In September 1983, men, women and children of Salkani (a
village in Western Ghats) “hugged the trees” in Kalase forest [25,26]. This
movement was against government policy to open forest for industrial
development. The members of Mahila Mandal include Adivasi women joined for
protection of rainforest by writing down to the government for halting of woodcutting.
The village women conducted awareness programmes through foot marches,
slideshows, folk dance, street plays, and dramas (Karan, 1994). Thus, with the
strong protest from people, Government forced to halt industrial policy on
Western Ghats which resulted in destruction of forest [27,28].
Silent
Valley movement (1976)
Silent
Valley is one of the important biodiversity hotspots in Southern end of Western
Ghats in Kerala. The Silent Valley Movement was against the decision of Kerala
Government to construct a dam for hydroelectric power project in the Silent
Valley forest [29-31]. The Malayalam poet and environmentalist, Sugatha Kumari
was the prominent leader in this movement. Despite the offer of employment and
development in the area, people, especially women opposed the hydroelectricity
project. As a result, the project was cancelled by personal interventions of
the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi in 1980 and Silent Valley was declared as
a National Park in 1984 [32].
Narmada
Bachao Andolan (1985)
India’s
Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is an environment movement against the building of
several dams along the Narmada River funded by World Bank. The NBA spread to
three states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh as the construction of
Sardar Sarovar Dam affect the environment and settlement of people of these
areas. NBA, which led by the Medha Patkar, Baba Amte, and Arundhati Roy had
turned into the International protest, gaining support from NGO’S all around
the globe. With strong protest from NBA World Bank withdraw project in 1993
[33,34]. But the case continued in Supreme Court.
Navdanya
movement (1984)
Navdanya
is India’s largest organic movement. Navdanya began in 1984 as a program of the
Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology (RFSTE), a
participatory research initiative to provide direction and support to
environmental activism. “Navdanya” means “nine crops” that represent India’s
collective source of food security (Preston-Pile, 2007). The main aim of
Navdanya is to save seeds from biopiracy and with this intention, setup 111
Community seed banks in 17 states in India [35]. They are strongly campaigning
against Genetically Modified Seeds and actively participating in biodiversity
conservation [36]. Mostly the members of Navdanya Movement are women farmers
from various parts of country.
Women Concern
for Nature Around Nigeria
Women have an integral relation
with the environment. Therefore, women are essential for any measure aimed at
environmental conservation, protection and sustainable development. In fact,
women have contributed greatly to the conservation movements in the past.
Women through their roles as farmers, collectors of water and
firewood, have a close connection with their natural environment and often
suffer most directly from environmental problems. Most studies on women and
environment have revealed that women are significant actors in natural resource
management, and they are major contributors to environmental rehabilitation and
conservation [37,38]. Throughout history, women have been immortalized as
powerful symbols of nature: Mother Earth, Earth Goddess, and Artemis in the
Greek mythology, and Mother River (the Yellow River) in Chinese history. In
addressing most of the current environmental issues such as climate change,
ozone depletion, environmental pollution and environmental degradation it has
been reported that women play a major role [38]. Women because of their direct
interaction with environment have made them have deep knowledge about the
environment [39]. Thus, making women serve as agriculturalists, water resources
managers and traditional scientists among others. According to Shettima [40]
reveal that Women are not only knowledgeable about the environment, they are
also protective and caring towards environment.
Among Nigerian FulBe, Women were responsible for the direct
marketing of milk and milk products, while men were responsible for the indirect
marketing of livestock, using a professional broker. Although women’s
individual transactions are smaller than are men’s, they aggregate sales by
women contribute substantially to household income and therefore to women’s
status. Thus, even its total household income was to increase through an
emphasis on beef rather than on dairy production, an often assumed through
rarely demonstrated proposition, the relative contribution to that income from
women would decline. Women’s labour contribution to stratified production
schemes is interpreted as part of their feminine role and therefore, remains
devalued and of low visibility, overshadowed by the dominance of men in these
enterprises. While women may contribute heavily in the labour-intensive task of
caring for the calves, their male relatives control income from sales to
ranches and feedlot operators. Excluded from the male run animal marketing
network, women even lose control over their own livestock as men will first
sell off animals that belong to their wives.
All over the world, women contributed to agricultural production.
They produce more than half of all the food that is grown (FAO, 1996). In
sub-Sahara African and the Caribbean, women produce 80% of basic food stuffs,
in Asia they provide fifty to ninety percent of the labor force for rice
cultivation. In Nigeria, 60% are involved in farming in Adamawa State Nigeria
[41]. Also, women in Imo state, Gurei district of Adamawa state and many Igbo
part of the country has been reported to contribute to food production and even
undertake some of the conventional male agricultural tasks (Adebayo 1998;
Ezumah and Domenico, 1995). As victims of soil degradation, women have
participated actively in soil conservation projects i.e. the project
Agroforestia in Yatenga, Burkina Faso. It was also found that women in Liberia
and Sierra Leon, through their daily activities such as cooking and cleaning,
add organic matter such as ash, potash and left-over food and stalk onto the
soil to form African Dark Earth [42]. The aim is to enrich soil which is solely
based on traditional knowledge and is said to improve soil quality. In
addition, [43] studies in Kaduna State show that women are actively involved in
environmental protection by engaging in sprinkling water on the soil before
sweeping. This, the women say protects topsoil, which in turn helps cub surface
erosion.
Studies
also shows that in Nigeria, where semi-sedentary Fulani women have overseen
milk processing and distribution, dairy development efforts have concentrated
on high-technology operations that process non-indigenous dairy products for
urban consumers. Hindered by low milk output and discouraged by low prices
offered by large dairy plants, Fulani women rarely are willing to sell their
milk to non-local markets. Absence of infrastructure and preservation
technology has so far prevented most women’s direct access to urban consumers.
In rural markets fermentation techniques adopted by women solve the danger of
contamination and combat the problem of lactose intolerance common in sub-humid
areas [44].
Similarly, the rate at which biological diversity
(especially the forest ecosystem) is been loss, there is raise in the need to
protect it. This is because forests play a vital role in protecting the soils,
water sheds, climatic stability and serve as source of many products (charcoal,
firewood, pharmaceuticals, latex etc.). The main sources of energy (cooking
fuel) for women are from natural resources such as charcoal, firewood and
kerosene, intensive use of these energy sources can lead to deforestation, soil
degradation and air pollution. Only very few rich women use gas or electric
cookers. The interesting part of the whole dilemma is that we have greater
women participation in forest management through tree planting, rehabilitation
or protection. The green Belt movement of Kenya where over 7 million trees were
planted in 10 years and set up over 1000 tree nurseries to the extent that it
harvested fuel wood from its own trees and the fruit trees are bearing fruits.
In Nigeria the situation is the same, Adebayo et al. (2001) reported that 70%
of women in Adamawa state, Nigeria have planted trees in the last five years in
their compounds and 21% planted trees on their farms. [38] studies in Plateau
State, Nigeria also shows that the commonest method employed by the women in
soil conservation is mulching. In addition, Oloko [43] studies in Kaduna state
Nigeria revealed that thirteen percent (13%) of women said they engage in
sustainable harvesting so that those plants would be available for next time.
However, they admitted being cutting tree branches in ways that would allow for
future germination of such tree. The Society for Women and Vulnerable Groups
(SWOVUGE) is also helping communities to restore and sustainably manage
mangrove forests in the five villages of the Ukpom Okom District in South East
Nigeria [45]. This is to show that women are actively participating in
protection of biodiversity either through planting tree or raising seedling in
nursery and flowers to beauty the environment or harvesting resources in a
sustainable way.
Moreover, in many cases, enhancement of urban ecosystems provides
multiple co-benefits for health such as clean air and temperature regulation
[5]. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) can further create synergies between
adaptation and climate change mitigating measures by assisting in carbon
sequestration and storage and enhancing various ecosystem services considered
beneficial for human health [46,47]. Trees has been known to play such roles as
surface cover for our land, erosion mitigants, carbon sequesters, temperature regulators,
they are catchment area for underground water, they serve as water shed in the
upland, improve transpiration and provide shade, they are important piece in
keeping a balance in our ecological systems, provide refuge for many endangered
species of mammals, birds and reptiles, preserve the environment by filtering
pollutants from the water, create a barrier that protects coastal areas from
storms and tides, they are known as salt excluders, have filters that prevent
the entry of salt through the root surface, they are also known as salt
secreters, letting the salt into the plant but then quickly secreting it,
usually through special salt glands on the leaves, their latex has medicinal
properties and has been used to treat sores and stings, they form the basis of
a complex food web, leaf litter and disintegrating vegetation are a source of
food for micro-organisms, many living things makes the tree their home, their
feeding ground, their breeding habitat, or their nursery, trees are very useful
ecosystem/regulators of micro climate and prevent surgent wind, they serve as
nostril for birds and ecosystems, there is a lot of mineral resources been
deposited, they are a big lungs of the ecosystems, they are particularly
considered to be efficient in reducing concentrations of pollutants, although
the capacity can vary by up to 15 times between species [3,48,49]. Green urban
design can reduce obesity and improve mental health through increased physical
activity and social connectivity [50]. Increased neighbourhood green spaces
reduce both morbidity and mortality from many cardiovascular and respiratory
diseases and stress-related illnesses [51]. Tree canopies have a higher albedo
effect than other hard surfaces and can work to reduce the urban heat island effect,
lowering heat mortality by 40-99% [52]. Whilst resulting in improved public
health and community resilience, many of these measures will also act to
mitigate climate change.
In term of waste disposal and
management, women are actively involved because they are closer to the
environment. They engage in environmental management by cleaning the
environment and keeping it clean especially in terms of garbage disposal.
Giving the health hazard of garbage, women see to its regular disposal at the
community level by doing it themselves [38]. According to Kwagala [53] in his
study in Kampala, Uganda observed that Drains are mainly cleaned by the women
on a regular basis or pay to have them clean. In the south western part of the
country, women in Pedro Village, Lagos state were found to be protective and
conscious of their environment. They manifest this by engaging in waste
management, drainage management, water resource management, flood management
and subsistence agriculture; these are all efforts towards protecting their
environment [54]. As a coastal community, they often experience flooding and
that could be further exacerbated by blocked drainages and improper waste
disposal. The study by Chukwu [54] shows that women play an active role in
protecting their community and serve as enforcers of guidelines and penalties.
Some Global Conservation Organizations
Some international organisations that have done a lot in bringing
awareness to the status of our resources and need for their conservation
include IUCN; WWF; UNEP; Friends of the Earth and Green Peace. In Nigeria, we
have the then FEPA and its state counterparts such as the Akwa Ibom State
Environmental Protection Agency (AKSEPA). These have now been subsumed under
the respective Ministries of Environment. We also have developmental partners
i.e. non-governmental organization (NGOs) [3] such as the Nigerian Conservation
Foundation (NCF), The Nigerian Society for Biological Conservation (NSBC) and
the Nigeria Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST). Most environmental
organisations are voluntary and act as pressure groups in influencing
government policies that are likely to affect the environment. They also aid in
setting up and managing nature preserves. In many European countries,
environmentalists are no more satisfied with merely acting as pressure groups
on Government. They are now proactive and are forming political parties known
as Green parties, with environmental issues given high priority in their
manifestoes. They have made significant gains in elections in Germany, Sweden
etc and are becoming a formidable force to reckon with many other European
Union (EU) countries. They organise consumer boycotts, picketing and
blacklisting of companies whose activities are not considered environmentally
friendly. Similarly, some institutions involved with ex-situ conservation in
Nigeria are shown in Table 2.
Traditional
Ways of Conserving and Protecting the Nigerian Environment
Re-orientation
Nigerians need a completely new orientation or another ethical
revolution to change our attitude towards the environment.
Mass
literacy campaign
For adequate and effective orientation of Nigerians especially at
the rural level, mass literacy campaign is necessary to educate more than 80%
of the people who are illiterates and therefore cannot understand as well as
appreciate the essence of environmental conservation and protection.
Mass enlightenment
campaign
There should be mass enlightenment campaigns in the villages
against environmental abuse such as uncontrolled bush burning, use of
fertilizers, overgrazing, deforestation (90% permanent loss in natural habitat
of pollinators critical to agricultural production and $1 billion annual loss
in non-timber forest products due to rapid deforestation), etc. this should be
carried out through such media as the village criers, the landlords, management
committees, community development associations, church, schools etc. to convey
the message to all nooks and corners of the villages/communities.
Review of
the land use system
Whereas land can be kept to fallow, the concept of bush burning
should be discouraged because it destroys the leaves, sticks, grasses etc.
which would have enriched the soil. Compost manure, which is derived from
decaying leaves, sticks, grasses etc is natural, more productive and less
harmful to the soil, crop, human and animals. It sustains the environment much
better and longer too.
Forest
tracing
To avoid
indiscriminate bush burning, communities should embark on forest tracing at the
beginning of every year by clearing forest paths of dry leaves, sticks etc. So
that fire in one area will not extend to another area.
Control
of forest exploitation
Foresters,
Conservation Clubs, local chiefs and individuals should work together to save
our forests from undue exploitation. Government should ensure that forest laws
are enforced to protect the forests.
Abolition
of some Habits
Habits
such as Argungu festival in Sokoto and annual fish harvest in Boki etc where
even the fish eggs are harvested as well as hunting and poaching with
extinction should be discouraged and stopped.
Re-afforestation
This is
the planting of trees plants to replace the ones destroyed through lumbering,
bush clearing and burning and excessive fuel wood harvest. Trees are catchment
areas for underground water and water sheds in the uplands. They help to
regulate the climate, provide habitat for wild variety of plants animals found
nowhere else, bind the soil to the ground, act as wind breaks etc. in other
words trees sustain the environment.
Formation
of conversation clubs
Conservation
clubs should be formed in our schools and villages as a channel of
communicating the messages of environmental friendliness and awareness to the
societies. This can be done through practical creative activities such as drama,
songs, debates, symposia, workshop etc on environmental conservation and
protection.
Recycling
of wastes
Solid
wastes come from quarries, industrial processes, homes, businesses and
educational institutions. Government, bussiness people, private organizations
and individuals should pursue the process of wastes recycling to face the earth
from serious pollution.
Cleaning
up the pollutions
clean up campaigns on the highly
polluted areas and water bodies should be stepped up. Grants to clean up
projects and researches should be liberalized, it should be legally obligatory
that any industries responsible for creating wastes should dispose of them,
whether through incineration, burial landfill or any other method.
Environmental
education and awareness creation
These should be given priority attention, particularly in the
educational curriculum to be able to monitor the environmental changes, sources
of such changes and their impact on man, plant and animals, utilized
sustainably the natural resources for the current development of humanity and
the total development in future. Unfortunately, Nigerians are poorly aware of
their environment and the damages being done to it through various activities
like deforestation, bush burning, littering/open dumping of human waste,
polluting rivers with sewage among others. Also, the changing climatic patterns
and their increasingly grievous consequences are little appreciated. There is
still inadequate established environmental protocol or information system for
Government Executives, parents, teachers and the youth, to enable them access
environmental information. However, the current provisions in national
educational curricular, as well as research and development programmes are
inadequate in providing environmental awareness. In addition, there is the
challenges of weak environmental legislation and enforcement to coordinate
environmental planning and action [55]. Given the worlds increasing technological
sophistication and the close interaction between technological progress and
environmental concerns, there is therefore needed to develop an environmentally
literate citizenry. Both formal and informal environmental education would be
effective an effective means to involve creating appropriate awareness of
critical environmental issues. In particular, formal education is important to
increase awareness, improve extension services, sensitize people on
environmental issues and build institutional capacities. Non-formal
environmental education tends to benefits people outside the formal education
system. Communication of environmental information to all stakeholders is still
a challenge. Public awareness empowers the public to develop a strong sense of
responsibility on environmental issues [55].
Empirical
studies
There is need for proper studies to be carried/directed at finding
out the degree and kinds of toxic food, water supply, amount of radio
activities contained in industrial wastes, the effect of water on soil
degradation/pollution arising from the use of chemical fertilizers among others
as a basis for further actions on environmental pollution.
Conclusion
The environment is a complex interwoven system. Its conservation,
management and protection are an expensive business thus, requires that many
hands are on deck together in a coordinated and strategic manner.
Unfortunately, no one is interested in research, creativity, invention and
innovation in environmental conservation. But without citizens buy-in
environmental protection and conservation, sustainable development would not
happen. Citizens are the best defenders of their environments as they have the
historical memories and knowledge about their environment and resources
therein. The environment can be considered as part of the global commons as
some of the cycles and mechanisms of nature operate across national boundaries.
Actions in one nation often have direct impacts on another. The Earth Summit
produced four major agreements which included the Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development (citing the rights and responsibilities of
individual states), the convention on climate changes, Agenda 21 (approaches
for sustainable development) and the convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
These agreements have been the focus for conservation initiatives.
Remarkably,
studies have shown that “One in four women worldwide or about 620 million women
rate their lives positively enough to be considered ‘thriving’,” According to
Gallup. “The life ratings of the rest or about 2 billion women place them in a
category of ‘struggling’ or ‘suffering’.” The results reveal that women in
developed countries tend to view themselves as thriving. Iceland, Sweden, and
Denmark topped the list, with 77 to 68 percent of women in these countries
saying they were thriving. These countries and others like them with more than
60 percent of their women thriving, including the United States, Australia, and
Austria, also rank highly on the UN’s Human Development Index. Gallup believes
this correlation suggests that countries with strong economic and human rights
offer a better environment for women. Unstable nations, on the other hand, such
as Afghanistan, Ukraine, and Egypt, are home to the greatest number of
suffering women. Physical conflict is not the only negative indicator, though,
as Greece and Bulgaria also scored highly on the suffering list. Economic
devastation appears to impact the lives of women just as deeply as military
conflict, and the divide between thriving and suffering in many countries
remains dismally wide, with most respondents falling into the struggling
category [56].
With
women suffering most in areas affected by conflict, it is evident that women’s
lives are closely linked to stability, development, and economic prosperity.
Although the overall figures show that many women’s lives around the world are
difficult, the study also indicates that many rates the quality of their lives
generally higher than men, suggesting they can play a critical role in
improving their nations. “Encouraging women’s participation particularly in
emerging markets where gender gaps are widest not only can improve how women
are doing, but also can fuel economic growth in their countries,” Gallup
concluded. The first step, perhaps, would be to transform their positive daily
experiences into positive valued contributions to society. This, in turn, would
help to promote their country’s quality of life on the whole giving momentum to
a virtuous cycle.
Recommendations
a) Mainstream women and equity in all sustainable development
policies.
b) The protection of
women decision- makers, planners, advisers and managers related to environmental management
should be increased.
c) Eliminate all harmful cultural, religious and social gender
inequalities
d) Environmental education and awareness creation should be expanded
in rural areas. Nigerians are poorly aware of their environment and the damages
being done to it through various activities like bush burning, littering/open
dumping of human waste, polluting rivers with sewage among others. There is a
need to develop an environmentally literate citizenry. Formal and informal
environmental education would be effective means to involve creating
appropriate awareness of critical environmental issues. Formal education is
important to increase awareness, improve extension services, sensitize people
on environmental issues and build institutional capacities. Non-formal
environmental education benefits people outside the formal education system.
Communication of environmental information to all stakeholders is still a
challenge. Public awareness empowers the public to develop a strong sense of
responsibility on environmental issues.
e) Undertake a comprehensive curriculum reviews that integrate
environment and development concepts in education curricular at primary,
secondary and tertiary levels.
f) Document, disseminate and encourage
the use of indigenous knowledge in environmental protection and conservation.
g) Implement full participation of women, girls and boys as agents of
development
h) Provide incentives that attract underrepresented women and other
vulnerable groups.
i) Support initiatives that ensure
financial independence for women.
j) Women when once mobilized play a
significant role in environmental protection.
k) The potential of Science and Technology should be utilized to
solve environmental related problems and ease women’s workload inside and
outside the home and promote the development and utilization of clean
technologies in national development. As relationships among science,
technology, the environment and society are intricate and delicate. The use of
sustainable technologies is critical for environmental sustainability.
l) The central government should develop
a strategy to eliminate various obstacles constitutional, legal,
administrative, social and economic in nature to women’s full participation in
sustainable development.
m) The Government, Non- Governmental Organizations, Environmental
Conservation agencies and the common man should recognize and mobilize women as
active participants to protect and enrich the natural resources that sustain
us.
n) Despite all these aspects there must be promotion of
disseminating the gender relevant knowledge and valuations of women’s role
through formal and non-formal education.
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